Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering - is the area of biotechnology, includes actions to restructure the genotypes. Already, genetic engineering allows you to toggle on and off individual genes, thus controlling activity of organisms, as well - carry the genetic instructions from one organism to another, including - organisms of another species. As soon as Genetics are learning more about the work of the genes and proteins is becoming increasingly real possibility of arbitrary programming genotype (primarily man), can easily reach any outcome: such as resistance to radiation, the ability to live underwater, the ability to regenerate damaged bodies and even immortality.
Genetic information
genetic information (genome) contained in the cell chromosomes (in humans to 46), consisting of DNA molecule and its packing proteins, as well as in mitochondria. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a sequence of nucleotides, each of which contains one of four nitrogenous bases - guanine (G), adenine (A) (purines), thymine (T) and cytosine (C). From a functional point of view, DNA is composed of many blocks (sequences of nucleotides), which keep a certain amount of information - genes.
gene - a site of a DNA molecule that contains information of the primary structure of any one protein (one gene - one protein). Since the organisms are present in tens of thousands of proteins, there are tens of thousands genes (in humans to about 20-25 thousand). The set of all genes of an organism constitutes its genotype. All body cells contain the same genes, but each of them realized the different part of the stored information. Only those genes are active, which are necessary for the functioning of the cells, so For example, neurons and the structural-functional, and biological characteristics different from those of liver cells.
role of proteins in the body
Proteins are the most important molecules in every living organism, the chemical basis of living matter. By the definition of Engels' life has a way of existence of protein bodies. "Proteins carry out metabolism (transport of substances in the body) and energy conversion, provide a structural basis for tissue serve as catalysts chemical reactions that protect the body against pathogens, carry messages that regulate the activity of the body. Chemically, proteins are chains of amino acids folded in space in a special way.
information about the sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain protein found in the genes in the form of nucleotide sequence. For example, the sequence CAA (cytosine, adenine, adenine) or CAG (cytosine, adenine, guanine) codes for the amino acid glutamine. This information is copied onto RNA molecules, which transmit in the ribosomes (which are also composed of proteins) instructions for protein synthesis. Synthesized proteins begin perform their functions, providing a work cell and whole organism.
One of the functions of proteins - activation of genes. Some genes contain fragments that draw to their specific proteins. If these proteins are contained in a cage, they align themselves with this portion of the gene and may permit or prohibit copying it to RNA. The presence or absence in a cage similar regulatory proteins determines which genes are activated, which means that any new proteins are synthesized. It is this regulatory mechanism determines whether the cell to function as muscle or nerve cell, or which part of the body should develop in this part of the embryo. Each cell is guided by such simple instructions ("If there is a protein X and Y, synthesize proteins Z, W and U, but do not synthesize protein V"). Overall, however, development of an organism from a single cell up to 100 trillion cells (human) - this is a very complicated process. To understand it until the end of scholars may be required 10-20 years.
Genetic Engineering
If you make an organism (plants, microorganisms, animal or even people) new genes, we can give it a new desired feature, which until then he had never possessed. Changes in genes primarily associated with the transformation of the chemical structure of DNA: sequence variation nucleotides in the chromosomal DNA, loss of some and the inclusion of other nucleotide change of form on DNA, RNA molecules, and this, in turn, causes a new sequence of amino acids in the synthesis. As a result, the cell begins to synthesize new protein, which leads to the emergence of a new organism properties.
Genetic engineering has its origins in 1973 when geneticists Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer introduced a new gene into the bacterium Escherichia coli (E. coli).
Beginning Since 1982, U.S. firms, Japan, Britain and other countries produce genetically engineered insulin. Cloned genes of the human insulin were introduced into the bacterial cell where synthesis started hormone that natural microbial strains never synthesized.
Around 200 new diagnostic products already introduced in medical practice, and more than 100 genetically engineered drugs is under clinical study. Among these drugs are cured arthritis, cardiovascular disease, some malignant processes, and perhaps even AIDS. Among several hundreds of genetic engineering firms 60% are working on the production medicinal and diagnostic products.
Genetic engineering in agriculture
By the end of 1980 was able to successfully introduce new genes into the tens of plants and animals - a tobacco plant with illuminated leaves, tomatoes, easily transferring frozen, corn, resistant to pesticides.
One important task - obtaining plants resistant to viruses, since currently there are no other ways to fight viral infections agricultural cultures. The introduction of genes into plant cells of the protein shell of the virus, makes plants resistant to this virus. Currently, transgenic Plants that can withstand the effects of more than a dozen different viral infections.
Another challenge relates to the protection of plants against insect pests. Application of insecticides is not fully effective, firstly because of their toxicity, and secondly, because they are washed away by rain water from the plants. In genetic engineering laboratories, Belgium and the U.S. have successfully implemented the genes in the plant cell earthen bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, allows synthesis of insecticides bacterial origin. These genes are introduced into cells of potato, tomato and cotton. Transgenic potato and tomato are resistant to the invincible Colorado beetle, cotton plants were resistant to various insects, including cotton scoop. Using genetic engineering has allowed reduce the use of insecticides by 40 - 60%.
Genetic engineers brought transgenic plants with a longer ripening fruit. These tomatoes, for example, can be removed from the bush with red, without fear that they perezreyut during transportation.
list of plants, which have successfully used genetic engineering techniques, is about fifty species, including apple, plum, grapes, cabbage, eggplant, cucumber, wheat, soy, rice, rye, and many other agricultural plants.
Gene therapy of human
In public, the technology of genetic engineering was first used for the treatment of Ashanti De Silva, four girls who suffered from severe immunodeficiency. The gene contains instructions for protein production of adenosine deaminase (ADA), she had a corrupted. And without the protein ADA White blood cells die, which makes the body vulnerable to viruses and bacteria.
A working copy of the ADA gene was introduced into the blood cells by Ashanti modified virus. Cells were able to independently produce the desired protein. After 6 months the number of white cells in the body girls had risen to normal levels.
After that gene therapy will push for further development. Since 1990 hundreds of laboratories are studies on the use of gene therapy to treat diseases. Today we know that using gene therapy can cure diabetes, anemia, some types of cancer, Huntington's disease, and even clean the arteries. Now there is more than 500 clinical trials of various kinds of gene therapy.
adverse ecological furnishings and a range of other similar causes lead to the fact that more children are born with serious congenital defects. It is now known 4,000 hereditary diseases, most of which are not found effective ways of treatment.
Today it is possible to diagnose many genetic diseases at the stage of an embryo or fetus. While you can only terminate the pregnancy at an early stage in the event of serious genetic defects, but soon it will be possible to correct the genetic code, correcting and optimizing the genotype of the unborn child. This will enable to avoid genetic diseases and to improve physical and mental characteristics of children.
Today we can say that in thirty years of its existence Genetic engineering has not caused any harm by the researchers did not bring any damage to nature or man. Achievements of genetic engineering in knowledge mechanisms of the organisms, and in the applied aspect is very impressive, and the prospects for a truly fantastic.
Human Genome Project "
In 1990, the U.S. launched a project "Human Genome Project, whose goal was to determine the entire genetic year man. The project, which played an important role and Russian Genetics, was completed in 2003. As a result of the project 99% of the genome was determined with an accuracy of 99,99% (1 error in 10,000 nucleotides). Completion of the project has already yielded practical results, for example, easy to use tests to determine the genetic predisposition to many hereditary diseases.
Expressed, for example, hopes that through rasshirfrovke genome by 2006 will be to develop drugs for the treatment of this dangerous disease like AIDS, by 2009, will identify genes that are associated with malignant tumors, and to the 2010-2015 year will be established mechanisms for the occurrence of almost all types cancer. By the year 2020 can be finalized preparations to prevent cancer.
immediate objectives of geneticists
Although genetics and genetic engineering have already played enormous role in medicine and agriculture, the main results still to come. We still have a lot to learn about how to run a complex genetic system in our body and other living creatures.
necessary to determine the function and purpose of each gene, to determine what are the conditions for its activation, in which periods of life, in which parts of the body and under what circumstances it is included and leads to the synthesis of the corresponding protein. Next, you need to understand the role played by this protein in the body, whether it goes beyond the cell, which carries messages, which catalyzes the reaction, the effect on the launch of Biological processes in other parts of the body, which genes are activated. A separate challenge is to address the protein folding - as knowing the sequence amino acids that make up a protein determine its three-dimensional structure and function. This problem requires a new theoretical knowledge and a more powerful supercomputers.
But scientists are baffled by the scale of this problem. Deciphering the human genome has demanded more than a decade, addressing the protein folding can take a little longer, but when it is resolved, people will be able to fully control the life processes in all organisms at all levels.
Prospects control genes
development of genetic engineering make it possible to improve the human genotype. Large-scale challenges now facing humanity require talented people in many industries, and highly committed individuals who have perfect health, the highest physical and mental abilities. Such people can be created by genetic, genetic and cell engineering. These methods are applicable only as to appear born children and to have adults. People will be able to repeatedly reinforce their own abilities, and increase the ability of their children. With the objective point of view, there is nothing wrong or unethical. Already, many world-renowned scientists such as Watson, one of the discoverers of DNA, they say that human stupidity, for example, is essentially a genetic disease in the future will be cured.
are eliminated genetic causes of diseases, all people will be perfectly healthy. Aging will be stopped and no one will have to face withering, with the decline forces, with decrepitude. People will become virtually immortal - death will become increasingly rare after ceasing to be inevitable.
known, for example, that one of the causes of aging is the reduction of telomeres with each cell division. Telomeres - a copy of a fragment of TTAGGG, located at the ends of all chromosomes and protect DNA as aglet. Typically, the cell dies, surviving about 50 fission processes, but the scientists managed to make unlimited cell division. In the late 1990's scientists were able to introduce into the cells they discovered the gene responsible for producing the protein telomerase restores the telomeres, and the thus making them immortal.
Of course, some groups are not hampered by the relevant knowledge, but pursuing what is personal and ideological or lobbying purposes may try to ban such technology, but as the history of science, for a long time to do so they will not succeed.
Progress unlikely to stop at correcting deficiencies. Curable disease, and stop aging, people would start to improve your own body, for its restructuring on their own plans and desires. People will be able to arbitrarily sculpt your own body and mind, to add their talents, to live under water, fly, eat the energy of sunlight, adding new sections of the brain, new organs of the body. Fans will be able to modify their bodies to make their body like the bodies of animals or even chimeras, such as centaurs or mermaids.
person is unlikely to limit its restructuring. He will be able to recreate organisms disappeared earlier from the Earth - the mammoth, the dodo bird, dinosaur, as well as creating entirely new organisms - dragons, unicorns, living at home flying trees. Any organism whose existence is not contrary to the laws of nature can be created. New species of animals, plants and even completely new creatures will be created for industrial purposes, as a form of creativity, for space exploration. In addition, people certainly want to help their brethren smaller rise from the animal level. With the help of genetic modification will be to strengthen intelligence of dogs, chimpanzees, dolphins and other animals. More people will not be alone in the realm of life on Earth.
But the gene revolution will not last forever. Concurrent progress in nanotechnology will to ensure that the boundaries between the animate and inanimate will be erased. Nanorobots and robots will be able to perform all the functions of biological objects, cybernetic organisms will combine biological and mechanical parts, androids are indistinguishable from biological humans. Artificial Intelligence and downloaded to your computer people will be reasonable as well as individual, existing in the living brain. In the end, inevitable restructuring of all inert matter in an intelligent matter, organized at the nano level, having the ability to rebuild itself and serve as a carrier of the mind. But that's another story.
